Middle English Bible translations
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Middle English Bible translations (1066-1500) covers the age of Middle English, beginning with the Norman conquest and ending about 1500.
The most well-known and preserved translations are those of the Wycliffean bibles.
Between two and four Middle English translations of each book of the New Testament still exist, mainly from the late 1300s, and at least two vernacular Psalters, plus various poetic renditions of bible stories and translations of verses in published sermons and commentaries.
Times[edit]
Aside from the decades of the late 1300s this was not a fertile time for Bible translation, especially the Old Testament.
English literature was limited because from 1066 to c. 1400 Anglo-Norman French was the preferred language of the elite who could fund book production, synthetic Anglo-Saxon Old English had broken down[1] and was transitioning to analytic Middle English with a Frenchified vocabulary, and Latin was the preferred literary and church language throughout Medieval Western Europe.
In the 1400s in England, new unauthorized translations were banned, following the Lollard violence, but Middle English then transitioned to Early Modern English.
Early partial translations[edit]
The Ormulum, produced by the Augustinian friar Orm of Lincolnshire around 1150, includes partial translations and paraphrases of parts of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles from Latin into the dialect of the East Midlands. The manuscript is written in the poetic meter iambic septenarius.
Sample from the Ormulum (Luke 1:5):
An preost wass onn Herodess daȝȝ
Amang Judisskenn þeode,
& he wass, wiss to fulle soþ,
Ȝehatenn Zacariȝe,
& haffde an duhhtiȝ wif, þhat wass,
Off Aaroness dohhtress;
& ȝho wass, wiss to fulle soþ,
Elysabæþ ȝehatenn.
Paraphrases of many biblical passages are included in the Cursor Mundi, a world chronicle written about 1300.
Richard Rolle of Hampole (or de Hampole) was an Oxford-educated hermit and writer of religious texts. In the early 14th century, he produced English glosses of Latin Bible text, including the Psalms. Rolle translated the Psalms into a Northern English dialect, but later copies were written in Southern English dialects.
Around the same time, an anonymous author in the West Midlands region produced another gloss of the complete Psalms — the West Midland Psalms.[2][3]
In the early years of the 14th century, a French copy of the Book of Revelation was anonymously translated into English.
Anna Paues (1904) edited a 14th century translation of most of the New Testament: the Epistles and part of the Gospel of Matthew.[4][5]
Margaret Joyce Powell (1916) edited the non-Wycliffean Middle English commentary and translation of the Gospels of Mark and Luke,[6] and the Pauline epistles,[7] dating them to the late 1300s.[8]
Another non-Wycliffean commentary and translation of Matthew's Gospel exists in two manuscripts.[9][10]
Wycliffean Bibles[edit]
In the late 14th century, the first complete English language Bible was produced, with some connection to John Wycliffe as inspiration or instigator or glossator or translator — hence it often called Wycliffe's Bible. This New Testament was completed in 1380 and the Old Testament a few years later. It is thought that a large portion of the Old Testament was actually translated by Nicholas Hereford. Some 30 copies of this early version (EV) Bible survive.
Books containing Lollard material, such as the so-called General Prologue of some manuscripts, were eventually banned. From the time of King Richard II until the time of the English Reformation, Lollards who owned Wycliffe's Bible with Lollard material, or read from that material publicly, could be prosecuted.
Wycliffe's Bible was revised in the last years of the 14th century, perhaps by John Purvey. This late version (LV) was subject to the same ban and was more popular than the first. Some 130 copies exist, including some belonging to the British royal family. All dated copies are dated before the ban.
Sample of Wycliffe's translation:
Be not youre herte affraied, ne drede it. Ye bileuen in god, and bileue ye in me. In the hous of my fadir ben many dwellyngis: if ony thing lasse I hadde seid to you, for I go to make redi to you a place. And if I go and make redi to you a place, eftsone I come and I schal take you to my silf, that where I am, ye be. And whidir I go ye witen: and ye witen the wey. (John 14:1-4)
Since the Wycliffe Bible conformed to Catholic teaching, it was considered to be an unauthorized Roman Catholic version of the Vulgate text but with heretical preface and notes added. This view was held by many Catholic commentators, including Thomas More.
Later partial translations[edit]
William Caxton translated many Bible stories and passages from the French, producing the Golden Legend (1483) and The Book of the Knight in the Tower (1484). He also printed The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ by Pseudo-Bonaventure, translated by Nicholas Love, OCart.
Legacy[edit]
All translations of this time period were from Latin or French. Greek and Hebrew texts would become available with the development of the Johann Gutenberg's movable-type printing press which coincided with the development of Early Modern English, making English a literary language, and would lead to a great increase in the number of translations of the Bible in the Early Modern English era.
Humanism of the Renaissance made popular again the study of the classics and the classical languages and thus allowed critical Greek scholarship to again become a possibility. Under the influence of Erasmus and his kind, with their new insistence on classical learning, there came necessarily a new appraisal of the Vulgate as a translation of the original Bible. Since the proclamation of the Latin Vulgate as authentic by the Council of Trent, there had been little new study of the original Biblical languages in Europe. But a renewed interest on the biblical languages threw scholarship into debate regarding the sources of the text. In the early 16th century Erasmus published a single volume of the Greek texts of the New Testament books, and republished more precise editions of this volume until his death. Erasmus's commentating and eventually re-writing a Latin New Testament (prior to publishing the one volume Greek New Testament) challenged the authority of the Latin Vulgate.
The other great event of that same century was the invention, in Europe, of printing with movable type. It was in 1455 that Johannes Gutenberg printed his first major work, an edition of the Latin Vulgate, now called the Gutenberg Bible. These developments would lead to the more fertile time for English translations in the Early Modern English period.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ "Middle English – an overview". OED.
- ^ Psalms Through the Centuries, Volume One, Susan Gillingham, John Wiley & Sons, Mar 28, 2012
- ^ Midland Prose Psalter, Middle English Compendium, University of Michigan
- ^ Selwyn Coll. Cambridge 108 L.1, Parker 434, CUL Dd.12.39, Bodleian Douce 250, Holkham Hall 672
- ^ Paues, Anna Carolina (1904). A fourteenth century English Biblical version. University of California Libraries. Cambridge, University Press.
- ^ ms. Parker 32, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge folios 1r–56v and 57r–154v
- ^ ms. Parker 32, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge folios 155r–208v
- ^ Powell, Margaret Joyce (9 May 2016). The Pauline Epistles Contained in ms. Parker 32, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Palala Press. ISBN 978-1-356-13429-8.
- ^ mss. London, British Library Egerton 842, folios 1r–244v, and Cambridge, University Library Ii.2.12, folios 1r–167v
- ^ Kraebel, Andrew (2014). "Middle English Gospel glosses and the translation of exegetical authority". Traditio. 69.