Qijia culture

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Qijia culture
Geographical rangeupper Yellow River
Periodearly Bronze Age
Datesc. 2200 – c. 1600 BC
Preceded byMajiayao culture
Followed bySiwa culture
Siba culture
Xindian culture
Shanma culture
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese齊家文化
Simplified Chinese齐家文化

The Qijia culture (2200 BC – 1600 BC) was an early Bronze Age culture distributed around the upper Yellow River region of Gansu (centered in Lanzhou) and eastern Qinghai, China. It is regarded as one of the earliest bronze cultures in China.

The Qijia Culture is named after the Qijiaping Site (齐家坪) in Gansu Province.

Prior to Qijia culture, in the same area there existed Majiayao culture that was also familiar with metalwork. At the end of the third millennium B.C., Qijia culture succeeded Majiayao culture at sites in three main geographic zones: Eastern Gansu, Middle Gansu, and Western Gansu/Eastern Qinghai.[1]

The Qijia culture benefited from the warm and humid climatic conditions from the Late Glacial to the Middle Holocene, which led to flourishing agricultural production and rapid population growth. These conditions changed with the aridification of the Late Holocene, provoking material and cultural decline.[2]

Research[edit]

The ultimate origin of metallurgy for the Qijia, Siba and other cultures in Gansu is unknown and requires further investigation.[3]


Qijia culture pottery head
The Qijia culture was part of the "Arc of the eastern Steppe", next to the Central Plain of China.[4]

Qijia culture produced some of the earliest bronze and copper mirrors found in China. Extensive domestication of horses was found at many Qijia sites.

The archaeological sites at Lajia, Huangniangniangtai, Qinweijia, and Dahezhuang [5] are associated with the Qijia culture. Qijia sites were also found in Ningxia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous regions.

A total of over 350 sites of the Qijia culture have been found superimposed on the Majiayao culture. A large quantity of metal ware, mostly copper objects, including some bronzes, have been excavated from various sites in Gansu province and at Gamatai in Qinghai province.

25 pieces of metalwork were analyzed for their composition. Those made from copper were the most numerous, accounting for 64 per cent of the total. The rest represented various copper alloys, including tin.[6] Contacts between the Afanasievo culture and the Majiayao culture and the Qijia culture have been considered for the transmission of bronze technology.[7] During this period, Central Asian styles of pottery and ornamentation, in addition to bronze techniques, were also introduced to the Qijia Culture and the Siba culture.[8] In particular, bronze knife technology was probably transferred from the Seima-Turbino phenomenon through the Southern Siberian Munkhkhairkhan culture to various Chinese cultures, such as the Qijia culture, Erlitou culture or Lower Xiajiadian culture, where very similar knives have been found.[9]

Many of the artifacts of the Qijia culture are thought to have derived from the Seima-Turbino culture of the Altai Mountains area.[10]

Pottery[edit]

Techniques of pottery-making are marked by a fine red ware and a coarse reddish-brown ware. There are also a few pieces of grey ware. They are handmade, there being no evidence of wheel-made ware.[6] While the Qijia culture pottery has its own stylistic characteristics, it also shares many traits in common with the Longshan culture in Shaanxi. Some elements of the Majiayao culture are also present.

Machang culture[edit]

Ruins of Lajia.

Machang culture (马厂) also flourished in 2500–2000 BC along the Yellow River; it was an outgrowth of the Banshan culture. Machang culture was partly contemporary with the Qijia; although they were quite different, there was cultural exchange between them.[11] Some scholars consider Machang culture as only a phase of the larger Majiayao culture, with the Qijia being derived from the Machang.

Mogou site[edit]

Jade cong, Qijia Culture, 2100-1700 BC.

The Qijia Culture Cemetery at Mogou in Lintan County, Gansu was excavated beginning from 2008. More than one thousand graves have been found there. The area was inhabited during the first half of the second millennium BCE. Thousands of funerary goods have been found, such as pottery vessels, bone ornaments and implements, shells, and metal objects.

To date, this represents by far the biggest find of copper and bronze objects ascribed to the Qijia culture, as more than three hundred items were found here. The finds are mostly implements, such as knives, and ornaments, such as buttons, earrings and beads. Some types of objects, such as torques and armbands, were not found before.

Examination reveals that tin bronze (Cu-Sn) was the most important alloy used at the Mogou site. Other alloys, such as Cu-Sn-Pb (lead) and Cu-Sn-As (arsenic), were also in use. Some items were manufactured by casting and hot-forging.[12]

Two iron fragments were recently excavated at the Mogou cemetery. They have been dated to the 14th century BC. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.[13][14]

Late stages[edit]

During the late stages of the culture, the Qijia culture retreated from the west and suffered a reduction in population size. Some scholars hold that Siwa culture was a descendant of the Qijia culture. Also, Kayue culture is believed by some to have developed from the western part of the Qijia culture.[11]

Genetics[edit]

Genetic analyses of ancient remains associated with the Qijia and Mogou sites were found to display high genetic affinity with modern Sino-Tibetan-speaking peoples, particularly modern Qiang people and Han Chinese, as well as with ancient 'Yellow River farmers' associated with the Yangshao culture. Mogou remains belonged exclusively to paternal haplogroup O-M175 (O3a).[15][16] The Qijia culture people were 80% Yellow river neolithic farmer and 20% Amur hunter gatherer.[17]

A mix of 34-36% Ancient Northeast Asian and 64-66% Yellow River neolithic farmer were the results of the Di-Qiang people in eastern Hexi Corridor (Gansu) who were related to the Qijia culture during the Neolithic.[18]

See also[edit]

class=notpageimage|
Qijia culture and contemporary cultures c. 2000 BC
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Qijia culture.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Neolithic period Archived 2013-08-17 at the Wayback Machine – Princeton University Art Museum
  2. ^ Li, Yu; Zhang, Zhansen; Zhou, Xueru; Gao, Mingjun; Li, Haiye; Xue, Yaxin; Duan, Junjie (1 May 2023). "Paleo-environmental changes and human activities in Shiyang River Basin since the Late Glacial". Chinese Science Bulletin: 3884. doi:10.1360/TB-2022-0965. S2CID 257736583. The long period of warm and humid climatic conditions from the Late Glacial to the Middle Holocene favoured the development and expansion of the Majiayao and Qijia cultures. This stable and agriculturally suitable climate was conducive to increased food production, which contributed to rapid population growth. However, the continuous aridification that began in the Late Holocene led to a decline in agricultural production and insufficient food and water supply, which hampered population growth and cultural development.
  3. ^ Dodson, John; Li, Xiaoqiang; Ji, Ming; Zhao, Keliang; Zhou, Xinying; Levchenko, Vladimir (November 2009). "Early bronze in two Holocene archaeological sites in Gansu, NW China". Quaternary Research. 72 (3): 309–314. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2009.07.004.
  4. ^ Rawson, Jessica (2020). "Chariotry and Prone Burials: Reassessing Late Shang China's Relationship with Its Northern Neighbours". Journal of World Prehistory. 33 (2): 138–168. doi:10.1007/s10963-020-09142-4. S2CID 254751158.
  5. ^ Cosmo, Nicola Di (2008). Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China). Cambridge University Press. p. 901.
  6. ^ a b An, Zhimin (1992). "The Bronze Age in eastern parts of Central Asia" (PDF). In Dani, A.H.; Masson, V.M. (eds.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, volume 1: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C. (PDF). UNESCO. pp. 308–325. ISBN 978-92-3-102719-2.
  7. ^ JIANJUN, MEI (2003). "Cultural Interaction between China and Central Asia during the Bronze Age" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 121: 1–39. the argument for possible Afanasievo-Xinjiang contact based on the finds at the Gumugou cemetery in the north-eastern rim of the Tarim basin would seem reasonable and needs to be kept open for the future archaeological finds. In other words, the possibility for the dispersal of early copperbased metallurgy from the Eurasian steppe into Xinjiang and further east to Gansu cannot be excluded at present and will have to be considered when further archaeological evidence becomes available.
  8. ^ Zhang, Kai (4 February 2021). "The Spread and Integration of Painted pottery Art along the Silk Road". Region - Educational Research and Reviews. 3 (1): 18. doi:10.32629/RERR.V3I1.242. S2CID 234007445. In the late Neolithic period and the early Bronze age, pottery, ornamentation and bronze culture with the characteristics of West Asia and Central Asia were introduced into Xinjiang, including Qijia Culture (2500-1500 BC), Siba culture (about 2000-1600 BC), Chawuhugoukou culture (around 800-100 BC), Turpan Subeixi culture (1100 bc-100 BC) and other cultures.
  9. ^ Linduff, Katheryn M.; Sun, Yan; Cao, Wei; Liu, Yuanqing (2018). Ancient China and its Eurasian Neighbors: Artifacts, Identity and Death on the Frontier, 3000–700 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1-108-41861-4.
  10. ^ a b Lin, Meicun (2016). "Seima-Turbino Culture and the Proto-Silk Road". Chinese Cultural Relics. 3 (1–002): 251, Figure 11. ISSN 2330-5169.
  11. ^ a b Chen, Honghai (2013). "The Qijia culture in the upper Yellow River valley". In Underhill, Anne P. (ed.). A Companion to Chinese Archaeology. Blackwell. pp. 105–124. ISBN 978-1-4443-3529-3.
  12. ^ Kunlong Chen, Xu Jianwei, Chen Kunlong et al., Recent Research on Early Bronze Metallurgy in Northwest China. in Paul Jett (ed.), Scientific Research on Ancient Asian Metallurgy. Washington: Freer Gallery of Arts, 2012, pp. 37–46.
  13. ^ Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China. Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8,45–53 (in Chinese)
  14. ^ Mei, J.; Wang, P.; Chen, K.; Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y. (2015). "Archaeometallurgical studies in China: Some recent developments and challenging issues". Journal of Archaeological Science. 56: 221–232. Bibcode:2015JArSc..56..221M. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.026.
  15. ^ Song, Mengyuan; Wang, Zefei; Lyu, Qiang; Ying, Jun; Wu, Qian; Jiang, Lanrui; Wang, Fei; Zhou, Yuxiang; Song, Feng; Luo, Haibo; Hou, Yiping; Song, Xingbo; Ying, Binwu (2022-11-01). "Paternal genetic structure of the Qiang ethnic group in China revealed by high-resolution Y-chromosome STRs and SNPs". Forensic Science International: Genetics. 61: 102774. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2022.102774. ISSN 1872-4973. PMID 36156385. S2CID 252254620.
  16. ^ Li, Jiawei; Zeng, Wen; Zhang, Ye; Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Li, Chunxiang; Zhu, Hong; Fu, Qiaomei; Zhou, Hui (2017-12-04). "Ancient DNA reveals genetic connections between early Di-Qiang and Han Chinese". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 17 (1): 239. Bibcode:2017BMCEE..17..239L. doi:10.1186/s12862-017-1082-0. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 5716020. PMID 29202706. We identified Mogou to be the earliest ~4000 yr. BP Di-Qiang population, and genetically related to Taojiazhai in sharing up to 100% paternal (O3a) and ~60% maternal (D4, M10, F, Z) haplogroups.
  17. ^ Ning, C; Li, T (2020). "Ancient genomes from northern China suggest links between subsistence changes and human migration". Nat Commun. 11 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16557-2. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-30F2-1.
  18. ^ Xiong, Jianxue; Wang, Rui (December 2023). "Inferring the demographic history of Hexi Corridor over the past two millennia from ancient genomes". Science Bulletin: 4. doi:10.1016/j.scib.2023.12.031.

External links[edit]

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