Kingdom of Israel (Samaria): Difference between revisions

Kingdom of Israel
𐤉𐤔𐤓𐤀𐤋^[1]
Kingdom of Israel 𐤉𐤔𐤓𐤀𐤋
c. 930 BCE–c. 720 BCE
	Map of Israel and Judah in the 9th century BCE, with Israel in blue and Judah in yellow.
Status	Kingdom
Capital	Shechem (930 BCE); Penuel (930–909); Tirzah (909–880); Samaria (880–c. 720);
Common languages	Biblical Hebrew, Israelian Hebrew
Religion	Monolatristic or monotheistic Yahwism; Canaanite polytheism; Mesopotamian polytheism; Folk religion;
Government	Monarchy
King
• c. 931–910 BCE	Jeroboam I (first)
• 732–c. 720 BCE	Hoshea (last)
Historical era	Iron Age
• Jeroboam's Revolt	c. 930 BCE
• Assyrian exile	c. 720 BCE
ISO 3166 code	IL
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Today part of	Israel; Palestine; Jordan;

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The Kingdom of Israel (Hebrew: מַמְלֶכֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Modern: Mamleḵet Yīsra'ēl, Tiberian: Mamléḵeṯ Yīśrāʼēl) or Kingdom of Samaria was an Iron Age political entity of the Southern Levant.

The Hebrew Bible depicts the Kingdom of Israel as one of two successor states to the former United Kingdom of Israel ruled by King David and his son Solomon, the other being the Kingdom of Judah. However, historicity of the United Monarchy as described in the Bible is debated.^{[Notes 1]} It can said with certainty that the northern regions underwent a period of (re)urbanization during the 10th century BCE, paving the way to the establishment of a kingdom ruled by the Omride dynasty in the 9th century, and that the political center of this kingdom shifted from Shechem to Samaria, where a lavish palace was built.^[2]

The Kingdom of Israel controlled the regions of Samaria and Galilee and large parts of the Transjordan. Its major cities were Shechem, Tirzah, Samaria, Jaffa, Bethel and Dan.

History

The main source for the history of the Kingdom of Israel is the Hebrew Bible, which is thought to be written mostly by authors in Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah. As such, it is inspired by ideological and theological viewpoints that influence the narrative.^[3] Later anachronisms, legends and literary forms also affect the story, Some of the events are believed to be recorded long after the destruction of the kingdom. Biblical archaeology has both confirmed and challenged the biblical account.^[3]

According to the Bible, David and his son Solomon ruled over a united monarchy, but on the death of Solomon, after a short interval during which the kingdom was ruled by Solomon's son Rehoboam, the northern tribes revolted and established their own kingdom under Jeroboam, who was not of the Davidic line. This northern kingdom became the Kingdom of Israel.

The biblical tradition holds that Shechem was the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel.^[4] Later Tirzah became the capital, and later still King Omri built his palace in Samaria,^[5] which continued to be the capital until the final destruction of the Kingdom by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.^[6]

Today, among archaeologists, Samaria is one of the most universally accepted archaeological sites from the biblical period.^[7] At around 850 BCE, the Mesha Stele,^{[citation needed]} written in Old Hebrew alphabet, records a victory of King Mesha of Moab against king Omri of Israel and his son Ahab.^[8]

Archaeological finds, ancient Near Eastern texts, and the biblical record testify that in the time of the Omride dynasty, the Kingdom of Israel ruled in the mountainous Galilee, at Hazor in the upper Jordan Valley, in large parts of Transjordan between the Arnon and the Yarmouk Rivers, and in the coastal plain of the Sharon.^[3]

Relations between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah

The tribute of Northern Kingdom King "Jehu of the people of the land of Omri" (Akkadian: 𒅀𒌑𒀀 𒈥 𒄷𒌝𒊑𒄿) as depicted on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841-840 BCE.^[9] This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".^[10]

According to the Bible, for the first sixty years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, and there was perpetual war between them. For the following eighty years, there was no open war between them, and, for the most part, they were in friendly alliance, co-operating against their common enemies, especially against Damascus.

The conflict between Israel and Judah was resolved when Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, allied himself with the house of Ahab through marriage. Later, Jehosophat's son and successor, Jehoram of Judah, married Ahab's daughter Athaliah, cementing the alliance. However, the sons of Ahab were slaughtered by Jehu following his coup d'état around 840 BCE.

Destruction of the Kingdom, 732-720 BC

In c. 732 BCE, Pekah of Israel, while allied with Rezin, king of Aram, threatened Jerusalem. Ahaz, king of Judah, appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III, the king of Assyria, for help. After Ahaz paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser^[12] Tiglath-Pileser sacked Damascus and Israel, annexing Aram^[13] and territory of the tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh in Gilead including the desert outposts of Jetur, Naphish and Nodab. People from these tribes including the Reubenite leader, were taken captive and resettled in the region of the Khabur River system. Tiglath-Pilesar also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city of Janoah in Ephraim and an Assyrian governor was placed over the region of Naphtali. According to 2 Kings 16:9 and 2 Kings 15:29, the population of Aram and the annexed part of Israel was deported to Assyria.^[14]

The remainder of the northern kingdom of Israel continued to exist within the reduced territory as an independent kingdom until around 720 BCE, when it was again invaded by Assyria and the rest of the population deported. During the three-year siege of Samaria in the territory of Ephraim by the Assyrians, Shalmaneser V died and was succeeded by Sargon II, who himself records the capture of that city thus: "Samaria I looked at, I captured; 27,280 men who dwelt in it I carried away" into Assyria. Thus, around 720 BCE, after two centuries, the kingdom of the ten tribes came to an end. Some of the Israelite captives were resettled in the Khabur region, and the rest in the land of the Medes, thus establishing Hebrew communities in Ecbatana and Rages. The Book of Tobit additionally records that Sargon had taken other captives from the northern kingdom to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, in particular Tobit from the town of Thisbe in Naphtali.

The Hebrew Bible relates that the population of the Kingdom of Israel was exiled, becoming known as the Ten Lost Tribes. To the south, the Tribe of Judah, the Tribe of Simeon (that was "absorbed" into Judah), the Tribe of Benjamin and the people of the Tribe of Levi, who lived among them of the original Israelite nation, remained in the southern Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah continued to exist as an independent state until 586 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Samaritan version

The Samaritan version to the events claims that actually much of the population of the Northern Kingdom of Israel remained in place upon the Exile, including the Tribes of Naphtali, Menasseh, Benjamin and Levi - being the progenitors of the Samaritans. In their book The Bible Unearthed, authors Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman estimate that only a fifth of the population (about 40,000) were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods under Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II.^[15]^: 221 Many of the Northern Tribes also fled south to Jerusalem, which appears to have expanded in size five-fold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water Siloam to be provided by King Hezekiah.

Medieval Rabbinic fable

In medieval Rabbinic fable, the concept of the ten tribes who were taken away from the House of David (who continued the rule of the southern kingdom of Judah), becomes confounded with accounts of the Assyrian deportations leading to the myth of the "Ten Lost Tribes".

Recorded history

No known non-Biblical record exists of the Assyrians having exiled people from Dan, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun or western Manasseh. Descriptions of the deportation of people from Reuben, Gad, Manasseh in Gilead, Ephraim and Naphtali indicate that only a portion of these tribes were deported and the places to which they were deported are known locations given in the accounts. The deported communities are mentioned as still existing at the time of the composition of the Books of Kings and Chronicles and did not disappear by assimilation. 2 Chronicles 30:1-18 explicitly mentions northern Israelites who had been spared by the Assyrians, in particular people of Ephraim, Manasseh, Asher, Issachar and Zebulun, and how members of the latter three returned to worship at the Temple in Jerusalem during the reign of Hezekiah.^[16]

Religion

The religious climate of the Kingdom of Israel appears to have followed two major trends. The first, that of worship of Yahweh, and the second that of worship of Baal as detailed in the Hebrew Bible(1 Kings 16:31) and in the Baal cycle discovered at Ugarit.^[17] This religion is sometimes referred to by modern scholars as Yahwism.^[18]

According to the Hebrew Bible (1 Kings 12:29), Jeroboam built two places of worship, one at Bethel and one at far northern Dan, as alternatives to the Temple in Jerusalem.^[19] He did not want the people of his kingdom to have religious ties to Jerusalem, the capital city of the rival Kingdom of Judah. He erected golden bulls at the entrance to the temples to represent the national god.^[20] The Hebrew Bible, written from the perspective of scribes in Jerusalem, referred to these acts as the way of Jeroboam or the errors of Jeroboam (1 Kings 12:26–29).^[20]

The Bible states that Ahab allowed the cult worship of Baal to become an acceptable religion of the kingdom. His wife Jezebel was the daughter of the Phoenician king of Tyre and a devotee to Baal worship (1 Kings 16:31).

Royal houses

The Northern Kingdom had 19 kings across 9 different dynasties throughout its 208 years of existence.

List of proposed Assyrian references to Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)

The table below lists all the historical references to the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) in Assyrian records.^[21] King Omri's name takes the Assyrian shape of "Humri", his kingdom or dynasty that of Bit Humri or alike - the "House of Humri/Omri".

Assyrian King	Inscription	Year	Transliteration	Translation
Shalmaneser III	Kurkh Monoliths	853 BCE	KUR sir-'i-la-a-a	"Israel"
Shalmaneser III	Black Obelisk, Calah Fragment, Kurba'il Stone, Ashur Stone	841 BCE	mar Hu-um-ri-i	"of Omri"
Adad-nirari III	Tell al-Rimah Stela	803 BCE	KUR Sa-me-ri-na-a-a	"land of Samaria"
Adad-nirari III	Nimrud Slab	803 BCE	KUR <Bit>-Hu-um-ri-i	"the 'land of [the House of] Omri"
Tiglath-Pileser III	Layard 45b+ III R 9,1	740 BCE	[KUR sa-me-ri-i-na-a-a]	["land of Samaria"]
Tiglath-Pileser III	Iran Stela	739–738 BCE	KUR sa-m[e]-ri-i-na-a-[a]	"land of Samaria"
Tiglath-Pileser III	Layard 50a + 50b + 67a	738–737 BCE	URU sa-me-ri-na-a-a	"city of Samaria"
Tiglath-Pileser III	Layard 66	732–731 BCE	URU Sa-me-ri-na	"city of Samaria"
Tiglath-Pileser III	III R 10,2	731 BCE	KUR E Hu-um-ri-a	"land of the House of Omri"
Tiglath-Pileser III	ND 4301 + 4305	730 BCE	KUR E Hu-um-ri-a	"land of the House of Omri"
Shalmaneser V	Babylonian Chronicle ABC1	725 BCE	URU Sa-ma/ba-ra-'-in	"city of Samaria"
Sargon II	Nimrud Prism, Great Summary Inscription	720 BCE	URU Sa-me-ri-na	"city of Samaria"
Sargon II	Palace Door, Small Summary Inscription, Cylinder Inscription, Bull Inscription	720 BCE	KUR Bit-Hu-um-ri-a	"land of Omri"

Notes

^ The debate is described in Amihai Mazar, "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy" (see bibliography), p.29 fn.2: "For conservative approaches defining the United Monarchy as a state “from Dan to Beer Sheba” including “conquered kingdoms” (Ammon, Moab, Edom) and “spheres of influence” in Geshur and Hamath cf. e.g. Ahlström (1993), 455–542; Meyers (1998); Lemaire (1999); Masters (2001); Stager (2003); Rainey (2006), 159–168; Kitchen (1997); Millard (1997; 2008). For a total denial of the historicity of the United Monarchy cf. e.g. Davies (1992), 67–68; others suggested a ‘chiefdom’ comprising a small region around Jerusalem, cf. Knauf (1997), 81–85; Niemann (1997), 252–299 and Finkelstein (1999). For a ‘middle of the road’ approach suggesting a United Monarchy of larger territorial scope though smaller than the biblical description cf.e.g. Miller (1997); Halpern (2001), 229–262; Liverani (2005), 92–101. The latter recently suggested a state comprising the territories of Judah and Ephraim during the time of David, that was subsequently enlarged to include areas of northern Samaria and influence areas in the Galilee and Transjordan. Na’aman (1992; 1996) once accepted the basic biography of David as authentic and later rejected the United Monarchy as a state, cf. id. (2007), 401–402".

References

Citations

^
- Rollston, Chris A. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 52–54. ISBN 978-1589831070.
- Compston, Herbert F. B. (1919). The Inscription on the Stele of Méšaʿ.
^ Schipper 2020, p. unpaginated.
^ ^a ^b ^c Israel., Finkelstein. The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58983-910-6. OCLC 949151323.
^ 1 Kings 12:25
^ 1 Kings 16:24
^ 2 Kings 17:5
^ See Yohanan Aharoni, et al. (1993) The Macmillan Bible Atlas, p. 94, Macmillan Publishing: New York; and Amihai Mazar (1992) The Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000 – 586 B.C.E, p. 404, New York: Doubleday, see pp. 406-410 for discussion of archaeological significance of Shomron (Samaria) under Omride Dynasty.
^ 2 Kings 3
^ Kuan, Jeffrey Kah-Jin (2016). Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-4982-8143-0.
^ Cohen, Ada; Kangas, Steven E. (2010). Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography. UPNE. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58465-817-7.
^ Delitzsch, Friedrich; McCormack, Joseph; Carruth, William Herbert; Robinson, Lydia Gillingham (1906). Babel and Bible;. Chicago, The Open court publishing company. p. 78.
^ 2 Kings 16:7–9
^ Lester L. Grabbe (2007). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. New York: T&T Clark. p. 134. ISBN 978-05-67-11012-1.
^ 2 Kings 16:9 and 15:29
^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86912-8
^ 2 Chronicles 30:1–18
^ Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The religion of ancient Israel. London: SPCK. ISBN 0-664-22145-9. OCLC 44174114.
^ Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The religion of ancient Israel. London: SPCK. ISBN 0-664-22145-9. OCLC 44174114.
^ Jonathan S. Greer (2015) "The Sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel"
^ ^a ^b "Israelite Temple", Tel Dan Excavations
^ Kelle, Brad (2002), "What's in a Name? Neo-Assyrian Designations for the Northern Kingdom and Their Implications for Israelite History and Biblical Interpretation", Journal of Biblical Literature, 121 (4): 639–666, doi:10.2307/3268575, JSTOR 3268575

Bibliography

Mazar, Amihai (2010). "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy". In Kratz, Reinhard G.; Spieckermann, Hermann (eds.). One God – One Cult – One Nation: Archaeological and Biblical Perspectives. Walter de Gruyter.

Schipper, Berndt U. (2020). A Concise History of Ancient Israel. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0495391050.

External links

About Israel - The Information Center About Israel
Biblical History. The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Complete Bible Genealogy A synchronized chart of the kings of Israel and Judah

[United_Monarchy_debated-2] The debate is described in Amihai Mazar, "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy" (see bibliography), p.29 fn.2: "For conservative approaches defining the United Monarchy as a state “from Dan to Beer Sheba” including “conquered kingdoms” (Ammon, Moab, Edom) and “spheres of influence” in Geshur and Hamath cf. e.g. Ahlström (1993), 455–542; Meyers (1998); Lemaire (1999); Masters (2001); Stager (2003); Rainey (2006), 159–168; Kitchen (1997); Millard (1997; 2008). For a total denial of the historicity of the United Monarchy cf. e.g. Davies (1992), 67–68; others suggested a ‘chiefdom’ comprising a small region around Jerusalem, cf. Knauf (1997), 81–85; Niemann (1997), 252–299 and Finkelstein (1999). For a ‘middle of the road’ approach suggesting a United Monarchy of larger territorial scope though smaller than the biblical description cf.e.g. Miller (1997); Halpern (2001), 229–262; Liverani (2005), 92–101. The latter recently suggested a state comprising the territories of Judah and Ephraim during the time of David, that was subsequently enlarged to include areas of northern Samaria and influence areas in the Galilee and Transjordan. Na’aman (1992; 1996) once accepted the basic biography of David as authentic and later rejected the United Monarchy as a state, cf. id. (2007), 401–402".

[1] 
Rollston, Chris A. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 52–54. ISBN 978-1589831070.

Compston, Herbert F. B. (1919). The Inscription on the Stele of Méšaʿ.

[3] Rollston, Chris A. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 52–54. ISBN 978-1589831070.

[4] Compston, Herbert F. B. (1919). The Inscription on the Stele of Méšaʿ.

[FOOTNOTESchipper2020unpaginated-3] Schipper 2020, p. unpaginated.

[:0-4] Israel., Finkelstein. The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58983-910-6. OCLC 949151323.

[5] 1 Kings 12:25

[6] 1 Kings 16:24

[7] 2 Kings 17:5

[8] See Yohanan Aharoni, et al. (1993) The Macmillan Bible Atlas, p. 94, Macmillan Publishing: New York; and Amihai Mazar (1992) The Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000 – 586 B.C.E, p. 404, New York: Doubleday, see pp. 406-410 for discussion of archaeological significance of Shomron (Samaria) under Omride Dynasty.

[9] 2 Kings 3

[10] Kuan, Jeffrey Kah-Jin (2016). Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-4982-8143-0.

[AD-11] Cohen, Ada; Kangas, Steven E. (2010). Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography. UPNE. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58465-817-7.

[12] Delitzsch, Friedrich; McCormack, Joseph; Carruth, William Herbert; Robinson, Lydia Gillingham (1906). Babel and Bible;. Chicago, The Open court publishing company. p. 78.

[13] 2 Kings 16:7–9

[Grabbe-14] Lester L. Grabbe (2007). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. New York: T&T Clark. p. 134. ISBN 978-05-67-11012-1.

[15] 2 Kings 16:9 and 15:29

[fink-16] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86912-8

[17] 2 Chronicles 30:1–18

[18] Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The religion of ancient Israel. London: SPCK. ISBN 0-664-22145-9. OCLC 44174114.

[19] Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The religion of ancient Israel. London: SPCK. ISBN 0-664-22145-9. OCLC 44174114.

[20] Jonathan S. Greer (2015) "The Sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel"

[teldan.wordpress.com-21] "Israelite Temple", Tel Dan Excavations

[22] Kelle, Brad (2002), "What's in a Name? Neo-Assyrian Designations for the Northern Kingdom and Their Implications for Israelite History and Biblical Interpretation", Journal of Biblical Literature, 121 (4): 639–666, doi:10.2307/3268575, JSTOR 3268575

[1]

[Notes 1]

[2]

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[5]

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[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

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[21]

v t e The Biblical and historical Israelites
Children of Israel / Twelve Tribes of Israel Ten Lost Tribes
History of ancient Israel and Judah Land of Israel United Monarchy (Kingdom of Israel) Northern Kingdom Southern Kingdom (Kingdom of Judah)
Tanakh Bible Hebrew Bible Old Testament Historicity of the Bible

v t e Rulers of Israel and Judah
Davidic line Kings of Israel and Judah Kings of Judah Maccabees
Israel (united monarchy)	Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon
Israel (northern kingdom)	Jeroboam I Nadab Baasha Elah Zimri Tibni Omri Ahab (Jezebel) Ahaziah Jehoram Jehu Jehoahaz Jehoash Jeroboam II Zechariah Shallum Menahem Pekahiah Pekah Hoshea
Judah (southern kingdom)	Rehoboam Abijam Asa Jehoshaphat Jehoram Ahaziah Athaliah Jehoash Amaziah Uzziah Jotham Ahaz Hezekiah Manasseh Amon Josiah Jehoahaz Jehoiakim Jeconiah Zedekiah
Judea (Hasmonean dynasty)	Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias
See also	Jewish leadership List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel

v t e Ancient states and regions in the history of the Levant
Copper Age	Kish civilization Tell Halaf Chagar Bazar Hamoukar Jericho Byblos Ebla Ugarit Urkesh
Bronze Age	Akkadian Empire Alashiya Amorite states Alalakh Amurru Andarig Apum First Babylon Third Ebla Ekallatum Emar Kurda Third Mari Mukish Palmyra Qatna Ṭābetu Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia Yamhad Amqu Barga Canaanite city-states Ascalon Arqa Arwad Azzati Beruta Gebal Gezer Hazor Jerusalem Kumidi Lakisha Megiddo Phoenicia Qadesh Shechem Sidon Tyre Dimasqu Hittite Empire Hurrians Urshu Nuhašše Mitanni Tell Hadidi Naziba Niya Ib'al confederacy Paleo-Syrian states Armi Armanum/Tall Bazi Ebla Emar Khana/Terqa Mari Nagar Tuttul Suhum ʿApiru Ahlamu Suteans Amqu ʿApiru Shasu Shutu Tadmor Tunip Ugarit Upu Nuhašše Niya
Iron Age	Achaemenid Empire Aramaean states Aram-Damascus Aram Rehob Bit-Adini Bit Agusi Bit Bahiani Geshur Hamath Sam'al Zobah Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Canaan Ammon Edom Israel (Samaria) Israel (united) Judah Moab Philistia Ashdod Ascalon Ekron Gath Gaza Phoenicia Amrit Arwad Gebal Tartus Tyre Sidon New Kingdom of Egypt Arabs Itureans? Nabataeans Qedarites Luwian-Aramaean states Carchemish Kummuh Luhuti Palistin Pattin
Classical Age	Ancient Rome (Roman Republic - Roman Empire - Byzantine Empire) Commagene Emesene Dynasty Ghassanid Kingdom Hasmonean dynasty Herodian kingdom Herodian Tetrarchy Iturea Macedonia Nabataean Kingdom Osroene Palmyrene Empire Parthian Empire Seleucid Empire Sasanian Empire Tanukhid confederacy
Sources	Amarna letters Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions